Mobile Phones, Privacy And Electronic Surveillance

Recent developments in mobile computing have been rapid and rapid. In this three-part overview of the mobile development platform, we will take a closer look at its history, starting with a comprehensive overview in this part. Part 2 analyzes the rise of iPhone and Android platforms and the final part will look at how it has affected some other mobile platforms.

The rapid development of positioning technology and wireless networks has made mobile phones an extremely versatile and powerful device. A modern mobile phone can make video calls, record and share multimedia, send and receive emails, surf the Internet, and leverage Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to access Location Based Services (LBS). The combination of these technologies into a compact, stylish and portable device has given rise to an unprecedented number of mobile phone users. For many of these users, using LBS is not an invasion of privacy. Usually the user is not aware of what information they are sharing and where this information is stored. It is important to let users know what information they are sharing so that they can make informed decisions about the use and management of their location information.

Mobile phone users are increasingly sharing more information about their location and behavior based on location data created when using their mobile phone; from simple activities like making phone calls to advanced requests like LBS access. Location information may be in the form of telecommunications traffic data collected for billing purposes or accurate location data recording the user’s position on the Earth’s surface. Telecommunications traffic data is data that is collected to facilitate billing purposes. Traffic data is not a new concept in mobile phones, as traditional fixed line billing requires the same traffic data to be collected.

Penders (2004) explains that traffic data is generated to direct communication. The types of traffic data collected include the calling number, the dialed number, and the time the call starts and ends. What is not recorded is the communication itself, that is, the sound conversation (Penders, 2004). Traffic data can be considered sensitive information because it can be used to find out who is calling whom and at what time. By looking at the data over time and the duration of each call, behavioral patterns can be identified and personal information about the mobile phone user can be inferred. For example, a phone call made once during business hours may indicate a professional and business relationship between the caller and the recipient. Repeated long phone calls late at night, on the other hand, may indicate a more personal relationship. This information can be considered private and should only be collected for ease of providing the service. Furthermore, access to this data should be limited only to those who need it for billing only.

A form of electronic surveillance developed by law enforcement records a person’s conversations by placing a ‘bug’ in their telephone line or phone booth. The courts have held that when conducting telephone conversations, an anonymous third-party government agent should not be expected to hear the conversation. A person has a legitimate expectation of privacy only if he honestly and sincerely believes that the place covered by the search is private and if a prudent person in the same or similar circumstances also considers the place to be private. Therefore, law enforcement has more leeway to intercept communications in a secluded environment than to intercept communications in a public space. The courts have given law enforcement the freedom to record conversations during prison visits, provided that surveillance is properly concerned with prison security.

There are two general categories of electronic communications monitoring. Wire communication refers to the transfer of human voice from one point to another through wires, cables, or similar devices. When law enforcement officers ‘tap’ a wire, they use a mechanical or electrical device that gives them external access to sound transmission, revealing the subject matter of the conversation. Electronic communication refers to the transfer of information, data or sounds from one place to another through a device designed for electronic transmission. This type of communication involves information uploaded to the Internet by email or from a personal computer. Using electronic devices to monitor a person can affect the rights of the person being checked to the Fourth Amendment. One form of electronic surveillance is to put a ‘bug’ in a person’s telephone line or phone booth and record phone conversations. Courts have held that this practice is a search under the Fourth Amendment, which protects a person’s privacy rights in situations in which the person has a legitimate expectation of privacy.

The mobile development community is at a critical juncture. Mobile users demand more options, more opportunities to customize their phones, and more functionality. Mobile operators want to provide value-added content to their customers in a manageable and profitable way. Mobile developers want the freedom to develop powerful mobile applications as demanded by users, with minimal obstacles in the way of success. Finally, handset manufacturers want a stable, secure and affordable platform to operate their devices. So far the same mobile platform has adequately met the needs of all parties. Now comes the advent of Android, a potentially revolutionary change for the mobile development community. An innovative and open platform, Android is all set to meet the growing needs of the mobile market.

This article explains what Android is, how and why it was developed, and how the platform fits into an established mobile marketplace. Mobile phones have become a widespread electronic and entertainment device that can include email, video cameras, music, and games. Unsolicited SMS (Short Message Services), text or picture messages can be particularly disturbing. Be careful when stating your mobile phone number and pay attention to options, such as tick boxes, that allow you to “opt-out” from receiving business messages.

Table of Contents

A “Free Market” For The Application

Android developers are free to choose any type of revenue model they want. They can develop freeware, shareware, or trial-ware applications, ad-driven, and paid applications. Android was designed to fundamentally change the rules for developing such wireless applications. In the past, developers faced many restrictions that had nothing to do with the functionality or features of the application:

Store limitations on the number of competing applications of a given type;
Store limits on pricing, revenue models and royalties;
Operators’ reluctance to make applications available to smaller demographic groups.

With Android, developers can write and successfully publish any type of application they want. Developers can produce applications for small demographic groups, not just large-scale money-making applications, which are often emphasized by mobile operators. Vertical market applications can be deployed for specific, targeted users. Since developers have a variety of application delivery mechanisms to choose from, they can choose the appropriate methods for themselves rather than being forced to run by the rules of others. Android developers can distribute their applications to users in a variety of ways.

Google developed Android Market, a generic Android application store with a revenue-sharing model.
handango.com added Android applications to its existing catalog using its billing model and revenue-sharing model.
Developers can create their own distribution and payment mechanisms.

Mobile operators are still free to develop their own application stores and enforce their own rules, but this will no longer be the only opportunity developers have to distribute their applications. Android may be the next generation of mobile platforms, but this technology is still in its early stages. Early Android developers have had to contend with common constraints associated with the new platform, frequently modified SDKs, lack of good documentation, and market uncertainties. Only a few Android handsets are available to consumers at this time.

On the other hand, developers landing in Android development are now reaping the benefits of the competitive advantages already present in the market, which we have seen on other platforms such as BREW and Symbian. Early developers who provide feedback are more likely to impact the long-term design of the Android platform and the features that will appear in the next version of SDK. Finally, the Android Forum community is vibrant and friendly. Incentive programs such as the Android Developer Challenge have encouraged many new developers to delve deeper into the platform.

Android Application Framework

Android applications are written in the Java programming language. Android SDK tool code co—with all data and resource files—an Android package, compile to an archive file containing a.apk suffix. All code in a.apk file is considered an application and is the file that Android-powered devices use to install applications.

The Android application framework provides everything you need to implement your average application. The Android application lifecycle includes the following key components:

Activities are functions that the application executes;
Groups of views define the layout of the application;
Intents inform the system of the application’s plans;
Services allow background processing without user interaction;
Notifications alert the user when something interesting happens.

Android applications can interact with the operating system and built-in hardware using a collection of managers. Each manager is responsible for maintaining the status of an underlying system service. For example, there is a location manager that eases interaction with location-based services available on the handset. View Manager and Window Manager manage the basics of the user interface. Applications can interact with each other using or acting as content providers. Built-in applications such as Contact Manager allow content providers to access and use contact data from third-party applications in countless ways. There is no limit to this.

Android Application Runtime Environment

Android’s unique application component architecture is, in part, a result of the way Android implements the Multiprocessing Environment. To make that environment suitable for multiple applications from multiple vendors, requiring minimal trust in each vendor, Android executes multiple instances of Dalvik VM, one for each task. In Component Lifecycles, and in later chapters, we will explore how Component Lifecycles enables Android to improve the way Garbage Collection is done within application heaps, and how it enables a memory recovery strategy across multiple heaps. Each Android application runs in a different process with its own instance of the Dalvik virtual machine (VM). Based on the Java VM, the Dalvik design is optimized for mobile devices. Dalvik VM has a small memory footprint and multiple instances of Dalvik VM can run simultaneously on the handset.

Application As Operating System User

Operating systems provide a software platform above which other programs, called application programs, can run. Application programs must be written to run on a specific operating system. Therefore, the operating system you choose largely determines which applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but other operating systems such as Linux are also available. When an application is installed, the operating system creates a new user profile associated with that application. Each application runs as a separate user, with its own private files on the file system, a user ID, and a secure operating environment. The application executes in its own process with its own instance of Dalvik VM and its own user ID on the operating system.

Application Signature For Trust Relationships

In a trust relationship, you must provide SAML-enabled systems with the URLs they need to contact each other. In some transactions, only the system that initiates the transaction (Secure Access Service) needs to know the URL of another system. (Secure Access Service, uses URLs to initiate transactions.) In other transactions (SSO transactions using the Artifact profile), you must configure each system from the URL of the other system. Android application packages are signed with a certificate, so users know the application is authentic. The private key to the certificate is held by the developer. This helps in building a trusting relationship between the developer and the user. This allows the developer to also control which applications can give each other access to the system. No certificate authorization is required; self-signed certificates are acceptable.

Commonly Used Packages

With Android Mobile, developers no longer need to try again and again. Instead, developers use familiar class libraries available through Android’s Java packages to perform common tasks such as graphics, database access, network access, secure communications, and utilities (such as XML parsing). The Android package includes support for:

Common user interface widgets (buttons, spin controls, text input);
User interface layout;
Secure networking and web browsing features (SSL, WebKit);
Structured storage and relational database (SQLite);
Powerful 2D and 3D graphics (SGL and OpenGL ES 1.0);
Audio and visual media formats (MPEG4, MP3, and still images);
Location-based services (LBS), access to alternative hardware such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

Content Provider—Android Developing Applications

To develop applications for Android devices, you use a set of devices included in the Android SDK. After downloading and installing the SDK, you can access these devices directly from your Eclipse IDE, through the ADT plug-in, or from the command line. Developing with Eclipse is the most preferred method as it can directly implement the tools required when developing applications. When users have Android handsets, they need those great apps, right? Google has taken a leading role in this area by developing Android applications, many of which, such as email clients and web browsers, are core features of the platform. OH A members, such as eBay, are also working on Android application integration with their online auctions. The first Android Developer Challenge received 1,788 entries—all were newly developed Android games, productivity assistants, and multiple location-based services (LBS). We also looked at human, social networking and mash-up apps. Many of these applications have become available to users through Google’s software distribution mechanism— for Android marker—Android.

Developing Android Applications

Android SDK offers a comprehensive set of application programming interfaces (APIs) that are available to both modems and robust Android handset core system services, and accessible to all applications. With proper permissions, Android applications can share data with each other and securely access shared resources on the system.

Enabling The Development Of Powerful Applications

In the past, handset manufacturers often established special relationships with trusted third-party software developers (OEM/ODM relationships). This specific group of software developers used to write original applications, such as messaging and web browsers, that came to the handset as part of the phone’s main features. To design these applications, the manufacturer provided the developer with exclusive information and internal access to the handset’s internal software framework and firmware. On the Android platform, there is no difference between native and third-party applications, enabling healthy competition between application developers. All Android applications use the same library. Android applications have unprecedented access to built-in hardware, allowing developers to write far more powerful applications. The application can be expanded or completely replaced. For example, Android developers are now free to design customized email clients for specific email servers, such as Microsoft Exchange or Lotus Notes.

Clearly Defined Application Permission

To access shared resources on the system, Android applications register for the specific privileges they require. Some of these privileges enable applications to use phone functionality to make calls, access networks, and control cameras and other hardware sensors. The application also requires permission to access shared data containing private and personal information such as user preferences, user location, and contact information. Applications may also enforce other applications by declaring their permissions for use. For better control over the application, the application may declare any type of permission, such as a read-only permission or a read-write permission.

Familiar And Cheap Development Tools

Unlike some proprietary platforms that require developer registration fees, checking, and expensive compilers, there are no upfront costs to develop Android applications.

Familiar Language, Familiar Development Environment

When it comes to the Integrated Development Environment (IDE), developers have many options. Many developers choose the popular and freely available Eclipse IDE to design and develop Android applications. Eclipse is the most popular IDE for Android development and an Android plug-in is available to facilitate Android development. Android applications can be developed on the following operating systems:

Windows XP or Vista
Mac OS X 10.4.8 or later (x86 only)
Linux (Linux Ubuntu 6.06 LTS, tested on Dapper Drake).

Formation Of Open Handset Alliance

With its user-centered, democratic design philosophy, Google has led a movement to transform the existing secure wireless market into one where phone users can easily commute between different service providers and have seamless access to applications and services. With its vast resources, Google has taken a comprehensive approach, testing wireless infrastructure, from FCC wireless spectrum policies to the needs of handset manufacturers, the needs of the application developer, and the wishes of the mobile operator. Subsequently, Google, along with other like-minded members of the wireless community, posed the following question. What needs to be done to make a better mobile phone? The Open Handset Alliance (OHA) was formed in November 2007 to answer the same question. OHA is a business alliance that includes many of the world’s largest and most successful mobile companies. Its members include chip manufacturers, handset manufacturers, software developers, and service providers. The entire mobile supply chain is well represented in it.

Free And Open Source

The free and open source software (FOSS) model provides interesting tools and processes through which women and men can efficiently and effectively build, exchange, share and use software and knowledge. FOSS can play an important role as a practical instrument of development because its free and open aspirations make it a natural component of development efforts in the context of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Android is an open source platform. Neither developers nor handset manufacturers pay royalties or license fees to develop this platform. Android’s underlying operating system is licensed under the GNU General Public License version 2 (GPL v.2), a robust “copy left” license, where any third-party improvements must continue to fall under the terms of the open source licensing agreement. The Android framework is distributed within the Apache Software License (ASL/Apache2), which allows the distribution of both open and closed sources of source code. Business developers (especially handset manufacturers), can choose to improve the platform without providing their improvements to the open source community. Instead, developers can profit from improvements such as handset-specific fixes and redistribute their work under any licensing scheme they wish.

Android application developers have the ability to distribute their applications under any licensing scheme of their choice. Developers can write open source freeware or traditional licensed applications for profit, and do everything between these two.

Free Available Software Development Kit

Android SDK and tools are available for free. Developers, after agreeing to the terms of the Android Software Development Kit License Agreement, can download Android SDR from the Android website.

Google Is Going Wireless

A coalition led by the web search giant is winning an early victory in an ongoing tug of war over a $10 billion deal in wireless airwaves. Washington, D.C. For a company that has had offices in the U.S. for less than two years, Google is surprisingly powerful in the nation’s capital.

The company’s initial steps in the mobile sector were surrounded by all the problems you can expect. The freedom that Internet users had, mobile phone subscribers did not. Internet users can choose from a variety of computer brands, operating systems, Internet service providers, and web browser applications. Almost all Google services are free and ad-based. Many applications in the Google Labs suite will compete directly with those available on mobile phones. These applications range from simple calendars and calculators to navigation and news alerts with Google Maps to the latest customized news – not to mention corporate acquisitions like Blogger and YouTube. When this approach did not yield the expected results, Google decided to take a different approach – revamping the entire system on which wireless application development was based, in order to provide a more open environment for users and developers: the Internet model. The Internet model allows users to choose between freeware, shareware, and paid software. This enables free market competition between services.

Have You Consented To Receive The Message?

You may consent expressly or with presumed consent to receive the message. Explicit consent can be given in several ways, for example, by filling out a form, ticking a box on a website, over the phone, or face-to-face. Sometimes, by participating in a contest, you can give your consent to receive commercial electronic messages from the parties concerned. In addition, you must clearly state that you will receive business messages from this person or organization in the future. No one can send an electronic message to get your consent as it is considered a business message itself. Messengers can also infer consent. This may be because you have an existing business or other relationship with the sender. Some examples where agreement can be inferred are:

You’re a member of a club.
You’re a customer of a service.
You’re a customer who deals with the sender relentlessly.

Consent can also be inferred if you explicitly publish your work-related mobile phone number or email address (for example, in a website, brochure or magazine).

Limited Ad-Hoc Permissions

Applications that act as content providers may wish to provide some immediate permissions to other applications for specific information that they wish to share openly. This is done in an ad-hoc manner of granting and cancelling access to specific resources using the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI). URI indexes include specific data assets on the system, such as images and text. Here is an example of a URI that provides the phone numbers of all contacts: Contents: Contacts/Phones. Let’s look at an example to understand how this permission process works.

Suppose we have an application that monitors the user’s public and private birthday wish lists. If this application wants to share its data with other applications, it can provide URI permissions for the public wish list, allowing another application to access this list without explicitly asking.

Complaining About The Message

Unsolicited commercial electronic messages may be complained to the ACMA. Many complaints are about:

A sender who has not clearly identified himself;
A sender who has sent a message without the recipient’s consent;
A message with no explicit function to unsubscribe;
Recipient has unsubscribed from the service, but is still receiving messages.

You can make an inquiry or complaint by filling out the online form on www.spam.acma.gov.au. The online complaint form details the information the ACMA requires of you, and gives you the option to let you know if you are willing to assist the ACMA in any enforcement action that may be initiated against the spammer.

Manufacturer—Designing Android Handsets

Android is an attractive platform for developers, but not all designers share our enthusiasm.

Making an app look and feel great on hundreds of devices with different combinations of screen size, pixel density, and aspect ratio is no mean feat. The diversity of Android offers many challenges, but it is also beneficial to create apps that run on the entire ecosystem of devices. More than half of OHA’s members are handset manufacturing companies such as Samsung, Motorola, HTC and LG, and semiconductor companies such as Intel, Texas Instruments, Nvidia and Quadcom. These companies are helping to design first generation Android handsets. The first shipping Android handset, the T-Mobile G1, was developed by handset manufacturer HTC and its services were provided by T-Mobile. It was released in October 2008. Several other Android handsets are scheduled to launch in 2009 and early 2010.

Mobile Operator

Providing Android experiences: After you get the phone, you need to deliver them to users. Mobile operators from Asia, North America, Europe and Latin America have joined OHA, ensuring a market for the Android movement. With nearly half a billion subscribers, telephony giant China Mobile is a founding member of this alliance. Order operators have also signed up to join.

No Costly Barriers To Publication

Android applications do not have any expensive and time-consuming testing and certification programs like other platforms like BRE and Symbian.

No Difference Between Native And Third-Party Applications

Unlike other mobile development platforms, there is no difference between native applications on Android platforms and applications created by the developer. Provided the application is properly allowed, all applications have equal access to the core library and underlying hardware interface. Android handsets come with a set of native applications such as web browsers and contact managers. Third-party applications can integrate with these core applications and also expand them to provide a richer user experience.

Premium Services

To meet the needs of mobile phone users, many new services are now available for adults and children. Premium services are available at a higher price than a normal telephone call and can provide:

Financial information, horoscopes, weather information and ringtones;
Mobile chat services;
Photos and videos of adults.

Privacy Technology And Monitoring

The Information Commissioner, who is responsible for the enforcement of the United Kingdom’s data protection and freedom of information legislation, warned in 2004 of the dangers of ‘sleeping in the surveillance society’. Introducing the report entitled A Monitoring Body, commissioned by his office, published in November 2006, the Information Commissioner continued: “Today I fear that we are actually becoming aware of a monitoring society that is already around us”. Monitoring activities can be carried out in good faith and can be beneficial. These may be necessary or desirable—, for example, to fight terrorism and serious crime, to improve access to and the right to public and private services, and to improve healthcare. But unseen, uncontrolled or excessive surveillance can create a climate of suspicion and undermine trust. As more and more information is collected, shared and used, it infiltrates our private lives and leads to decisions that directly affect people’s lives. Mistakes can also easily occur that can have serious consequences—false matches and other cases of misidentification, false facts or inferences, suspicion assuming reality, and breach of security.”

These privacy implications of information technology were noted with concern by Lord Hoffmann in the House of Lords in his ruling in the case vs. Brown: “My Lords, one of the less welcome consequences of the information technology revolution is that it is now easier to intrude into the individual’s privacy”. No more peeping through lock holes or listening under the roof. Instead, more reliable information can be obtained with greater comfort and security by using hidden surveillance cameras, telephoto lenses, hidden microphones and telephone bugs. It is no longer necessary to open letters, peek into files or make detailed enquiries in order to ascertain intimate details of a person’s business or financial affairs, his health, family, leisure activities or his dealings with central or local government. A vast amount of information about everyone is stored on a computer, which can be transmitted instantly anywhere in the world and accessed with the touch of a keyboard. The right to set themselves apart, the right to tell others that certain things aren’t their job, is technically under threat”

Lord Browne-Wilkinson VC in the Marcel vs Metropolitan Police Commissioner case gave further consideration to potential threats. The plaintiff’s documents were confiscated by the police during a criminal investigation. Civil proceedings were also under way in connection with these same events, and a summons was issued on behalf of a party to this suit to disclose some of these documents. In ordering the quashing of the summons, the judge expressed concern that: “If the information obtained by the police, the Inland Revenue Department, social security offices, the health service and other agencies is collected in a file, the individual’s liberty will be seriously jeopardized”. Document of private information symbolizes totalitarian state.”

As indicated in the above excerpt, it is difficult to define a proper balance between privacy—which is traditionally expressed as the right to live alone—and monitoring—which represents the desire to receive information about another—. Although the two initially appear to be opposites, privacy and surveillance are almost as connected as if they were twins. A wide range of opinion polls evidence strong support for the protection of privacy. Although many of these come from the United States, in the United Kingdom, the Information Commissioner has given an annual mandate to opinion polls. In the 2000 Annual Report, the then Commissioner stated:

“Respondents were read out a list of issues and asked to explain how important they considered each one”. The proportion of people who believed it was very important to protect people’s rights to personal privacy rose from 73% to 75%, but not significantly. This issue remains of crucial importance in terms of the hierarchy of people’s priorities. Again, only improving standards of crime prevention and education is considered a more important issue by the public” Subsequent surveys have adopted a different formulation, more closely linked to the Information Commissioner’s mandate, asking respondents’ views about the importance of protecting personal information. However, the answers have remained largely stable. It contains the results of the 2006 survey.

Receiving Messages, Promoting Goods And Services

Among other things, the Spam Act, 2003 regulates commercial electronic messages sent by email, instant messaging and mobile phone messages, such as SMS and MMS (Multimedia Messaging Services). It is implemented by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). Messages that sell or advertise goods or services, show interest in land, business or investment opportunities or direct the recipient to a location where goods and services are sold or advertised are considered commercial electronic messages and are covered under the Spam Act. Any commercial message sent to you that does not meet the following conditions violates Australia’s spam laws:

Consent; it must be sent with your consent.
Identification; must contain accurate information about the person or organization that authorized the sending of the message.
Unsubscribe; It should have a functional ‘unsubscribe’ feature so you can’t receive future messages from that source. Your request must be accepted within five business days.

Proper Learning Process For Developers

Android applications are written in a reputable programming language, Java. Android application frameworks include traditional programming structures, such as threads and processes, and data structures specifically designed to contain commonly used objects in mobile applications. Developers can rely on familiar class libraries, such as Java.net and java.text. Libraries specifically for functions such as graphics and database embedded systems (Open GL ES) or SQLite.

Security And Permissions

The integrity of the Android platform is maintained through various security measures.

Spam-related information: For more Span-related information, including FAQs, online forms of complaint and inquiry, and to download the Spam Matters software, visit the ACMA website www.spam.acma.gov.au.

Taking advantage of all the features of Android: Android’s open platform has been embraced by the majority of the mobile development community – extending far beyond members of OHA. As Android phones and applications become more readily available, many in the tech community are anticipating that other mobile operators and handset manufacturers will take advantage of the opportunity to sell Android phones to their customers, especially given the cost advantage over proprietary platforms. North American operators such as Verizon Wireless and AT&T have already shown interest in Android, and T-Mobile is already providing handsets. If the open standard of the Android platform results in lower operator costs in licensing and royalties, we may see a migration from proprietary platforms like BREW to open handsets. Windows Mobile, and even Apple iPhone, Android is suitable to meet this demand.

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