Introduction To Cyber Space

Internet is one of the most important inventions of the 21st century that has influenced our lives. Today the Internet has crossed every obstacle and changed our way of talking, playing games, working, making friends, listening to music, watching movies, paying food, paying bills, congratulating your friend on his birthday/anniversary. You name it, and we have an app for this. It has made our life comfortable and made it easily. Those days went when we had to stand in a long queue to pay our telephone and electricity bills. Now we can pay it from our home or office at a click of a button. The technology has reached such an extent that we do not even need a computer to use ‟Internet. Now we have internet competent smartphones, laptop etc. through which we can stay connected to our friends, family and office. The Internet has not only simplified our lives, but it has also brought many things to the middle class by making it cost -effective. It is not a matter of some time ago, when I was making ISD or STD calls, my eyes fell on the pulse meter. The calls were very expensive. ISD and STD were used only to send essential messages and the remaining regular communication was done through papers, as it was relatively very cheap.

Now the Internet has not only made it possible to interact, but also make it possible to use video conferences using popular applications like Skype, GTOD etc. Not only this, the Internet has also changed the use of common devices we used. Television can not only be used to watch popular TV shows and movies, but can also be used for calls/video chatting with friends using the Internet. Mobile phones are used not only to call but also to watch the latest film. We can stay connected with everyone, no matter what our place is. Working parents of the office can monitor their children at home and help them in their homework. A businessman can monitor his employees, offices, shops etc. with a button click. This has made our lives smooth in more than one way. Have you ever wondered where this internet came from? Let us discuss the brief history of the Internet and know how this internet was invented and how it developed to such an extent that we can not even think about our life without it.

Internet history

I do not know what the Cold War between the United States and Russia gave the world to the world, but the Internet is definitely one of the very useful inventions whose foundation was laid during the Cold War days. Russia launched the world’s first satellite, Sputnik in space on October 8, 1956. This was clearly a win by Russia on cyber space and as a counter -step, the Research Branch of the United States Department of Defence, Advanced Research Projects Agency announced the launch of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) earlier. It was an experimental network and was designed to maintain computers attached to this network to interact with each other, even if the bomb attack fails to react to any node. The first message was sent to the packing switching network Arpanet by Lyonard Cleanrock’s laboratory at California University, Los Angeles (UCLA). You will be surprised to know that the first message sent on the Internet was “LO”. In fact, his intention was to send the work “login” and only the first two letters reached their destination at the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and the network went down due to disturbances before the final three letters reached the destination. Soon the error was fixed and the message was sent again.

The major task that Arpanet has to do is to develop a protocol for communication for communication. ARPANET especially led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which many different networks can be added to the network of network. This resulted in the development of the TCP/IP protocol suit, which specifies the rules of connecting and communicating on the apranet.

Shortly thereafter, in 1986, NSF (National Science Foundation) Backbone was created and five American universities ‟computing centers were added to create NSFNets. There were participating universities:

Princeton University – John von Vonnnue National Supercomputer Center, JVNC • Cornell University – Cornell Theory Center, CTC • Illinois University, Arbana -Shampain – National Supercomputer – NCSA • Carnegie Melon University – Pittsburg Supercomputer Center, Pittsburg Supercomputer Center, PSC • General Atomics Center, SDSC Center, SDSC

ARPANET’s successor NFSNET became popular by 1990 and ARPANET was closed. Many parallel networks were developed by other universities and other countries such as the United Kingdom. In 1965, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) proposed a packing switching network. Michigan Educational Research Information Triad formed the merit network in 1966, which was funded and supported by Michigan State and National Science Foundation (NSF). France also developed a packet switching network in 1973, known as Cycles. Now there were many parallel systems working on various protocols and scientists were looking for some general standard to connect the network. In 1978, TCP/IP protocol suits were prepared and until 1983, TCP/IP protocol was adopted by ARPANET. In 1981, two large networks were integrated. NFS developed Computer Science Network (CSNET) and connected to ARPANET using TCP/IP protocol suits. Now the network was not only popular among the research community but private players also took interest in the network. Initially NFS supported the speed of 56 kbit/s. It was upgraded to 1.5 MBT/s in 1988 to facilitate the development of the network by incorporating the state of merit network, IBM, MCA and Michigan.

When cooperative societies realized the strength and ability of this network, they participated in the development of the network to meet its benefits. By the end of the 1980s, several Internet Services Providers (ISP) emerged to provide the spine to carry the network traffic. By 1991, the NFSNET had expanded and was upgraded to 45mbit/s. Many commercial ISPs offered backbone service and were popular among corporates. To facilitate the commercial use of the network, the NFSNET was discontinued in 1995 and can now carry internet commercial traffic.

Now more and more universities and research centers worldwide are connected to it. It was now very popular among the network research community and the National Research and Education Network (NREN) was established in 1991 and the World Wide Web was released. Initially the role of the Internet was limited to file transfer only. Today, the credit for the internet we see goes to Tim Burner-Li who started WWW. With the arrival of WWW, there was a change in the way the use of the network. Now this net of information can be used to recover any information available on the Internet. A software called browser was developed to browse internet. It was developed in 1992 by researchers at the University of Illinois and was named Mosaic. This browser enables the internet to browse in the same way we browse today.

Internet addresses

With so many of the Internet -associated devices, we need a mechanism to specifically identify each tool related to the Internet. Apart from this, we also need some centralized system that take care of this mechanism so that the indications used to identify each tool are not repeated; Otherwise the entire purpose will fail. To take care of this, we have a centralized authority known as the Internet Assign Number Authority (IANA), which is responsible for specifying a unique number known as an IP (Internet Protocol) address. The IP address is a 32-bit binary number divided into four octates and each octate has 8 binary points and these octates are separated by a point (.). An example of IP address is: 11110110.01101010.10011100.111100

Each of an octate can have two binary values in each 4-bit ie 0 and 1. Therefore, the minimum value of each Ashtak can be from 0. ie 00000000 to maximum value 256 ie 1111111 and in total 28 = 256 different combinations can be.

It is a little difficult to remember this 32-bit address in the binary again, so for a better understanding of man, it is expressed in decimal format. But this decimal format is only for human understanding and computer understands it only in binary format. In decimal, the above IP address is expressed as 123.45.78.125

These octates are used to create and separate different classes. An IP address has two parts. Network and hosts. The network part identifies different networks of the network and the host part identifies a device of a particular network. This address uniquely identifies the Internet -connected devices, which are similar to the postage system, where we identify any household first by telling the county, then the state, district, post office, cluster/block and the number of the house. These IP addresses are classified into five categories based on the availability of IP range. These are categories/classes:

Class A: 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 – Each of the 127 network supports 16 million hosters.
Class B: 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 – Each of 16,000 networks supports 65,000 hosteers.
Class C: 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254.254 – Each of 2 million supports 254 hosts on the network
Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.2555 – Reserved for multicast groups
Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 – Reserved for future use, or research and development purposes.

IANA Decentralizes the task of allocating IP addresses by allocating large parts of IP addresses to five regional internet registries (RIRs), which are also responsible for allocating IP addresses in their area. These RIRs are listed below with their operating sector:

APNIC- This RIR is responsible for the service of Asia Pacific
Affrinic- This RIR is responsible for the service of African sector
Arin- This RIR is responsible for the service of North America and many Caribbean and North Atlantic Islands
Lacnic- This RIR is responsible for the service of Latin America and Caribbean, and
Ripe NCC- This RIR is responsible for serving Europe, Middle East and parts of Central Asia

There is an organization called Number Resource Organization (NRO) for contact and coordination between these five RIRs.

Whenever we browse a website on the Internet, we type some names like www.uou.ac.in and we rarely deal with IP addresses like 104.28.2.92, but the fact is that even though we type http: \\ 104.28.2.92 in URL, it will take us on the same website. The truth is that we are very comfortable using names instead of a number and remembering them. In addition, these IP addresses change with time and some sites have multiple IP addresses. In addition, the transfer of data on the Internet is possible only using IP addresses because the routing of the packets of data sent to the Internet is done using IP addresses. There is a server called Domain Name System (DNS) that takes care of simplifying this translation work and saving us from remembering these changing IP address numbers, DNS. Whenever you type an address like http: \\ www.uou.ac.in, there is a process called DNS name solution in the background. The computer keeps track of recently seen sites and locally maintains a database in DNS cash. If the IP address of the site required by you is not found in the DNS cash of your local computer, the next possible place to find it is the DNS server of your Internet service provider (ISP). These DNS servers of ISP also maintain cash of recently seen pages. If information is not available here too, the DNS server of ISP forwards the query on the root nemsarwar. Root name server root zone files on other DNS servers and clients on the Internet. The root zone file explains where the official servers for DNS top-level domain (TLD) are located. Currently there are 13 routine servers. they are:

DNS

A – Vericine Global Registry Services
B – Southern California University – Institute of Information Sciences
C – Consent Communications
D – University of Maryland
E -NASA AIIMS Research Center
F – Internet Systems Consortium, Inc.
G – U.S. DOD Network Information Center
H – U.S. Army research laboratory
I – Autonomica/Nordune
J – Vericine Global Registry Services
K – Mature NCC
L – ICANN
M – Wide Project

These root Nemsarwar first read the last part of the URL and direct the Query to the appropriate top-level domain (TLD) Nemsarwar. In our example, URL was http: \\ www.uou.ac.in. The last part is .in. TLD names are some examples of the server .com, .biz, .org, .s, .in, etc. These TLD Nemsarwar act as a switchboard and direct the query to the appropriate official Nemsarwar made by each domain. These official Nemsarwar also maintain DNS records along with other useful information. This address is returned to the host computers requesting requested through record TLD Nemsarwar, Nemsarwar, ISP ‟S DNS server. These intermediary servers keep the copy of this IP address in their DNS cash, so that if the same request is revealed again, they do not have to pass through this process. If the same URL is re -requested, the local host computer’s DNS Cash will return the URL’s IP address.

Internet Infrastructure: Internet, as the name suggests, is a collection of many small, medium and large networks in the network of network. This clearly indicates a fact that no person is a single owner of the Internet and is a proven example of collaborative success. Now you will be surprised how such a large network spread in continents can run without any problem. Yes, it is true that we need an international body to monitor such a large network that can prepare rules, regulation and protocols to connect and use this network. Therefore, in 1992, an international organization, known as “The Internet Society”, was formed to take care of such issues.

Let us now discuss how this internet works? How the email you sent to your friend is obtained by the computer of your friend ‟located in another country/continent. When you are working on a laptop/desktop in your home without connecting to the Internet, your computer is a standalone system. But, whenever you use your modem using your internet service provider (ISP) and connect with the Internet, you become a part of the network. ISP internet backbone, through which the entire data root is rooted, and the link between the user. ISP Network connects to the internet backbone on access points (NAP). These NAPs are provided by large telecom companies in different fields. These large telecom companies connect countries and continents by constructing and maintaining large infrastructure to deliver data from NAP to NAP. ISP NAPs are attached to this backbone and are responsible for creating and managing networks locally. So when you dial the Internet through the modem, you first become part of the local ISP, which in turn connects the Internet backbone through NAP. The data is rooted through this backbone and sent to the destination NAP, where the ISP of your friend ‟is located. As soon as your friend dials his modem to connect to the Internet, the data is delivered to your friend ‟’s computer.

World Wide Web: Sometimes we use the word internet and world wide web or only web, as it is popularly known. But only one of the many utilities provided by web internet is only one. Apart from the web, some popular services provided by the Internet are e-mail, usage, messaging service, FTP etc. The web uses HTTP protocols for communicating on the Internet and exchange of information. The web was developed in 1989 by UK scientist Tim Burner-Li at CERN (European de Research Nuclear), Switzerland). This includes all public web sites and all equipment accessing web content. WWW is an information sharing model developed for exchange of information on the Internet. There are many public websites available on the Internet, a collection of web pages. These webpages have a lot of information in the form of text, video, audio and picture format. These web pages can be reached using an application software called web browser. Some examples of popular web browser are: Internet Explorer, Chrome, Safari, Firefox, etc. So there was a small introduction about how it works internet and how it works. Now let’s discuss about cyber crime.

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